A Bibliography of Trail and Recreation Issues
Compiled by Don Wier
Contents
- User Conflict Characterization & Management
- Botanical Impact Characterization
- Physical Impact Characterization
- Zoological/Ecological Impact Characterization
- Legal Issues
- Trail Planning & Management
- Unpublished reports
User Conflict Characterization & Management
1. Adelman, B.J.E., Heberlein, T.A. and Bonnickson, T.M. 1982. Social psychological explanations for the persistence of a conflict between paddling canoeists and motorcraft users in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area. Leisure Sciences 5(1): 45-61.
2. Amy, D.J. The Politics of Environmental Mediation. Columbia University Press, New York, 1987.
3. Baker, N., 1990. Mountain bike management: A tale of three cities. Western Wildlands 16(3):36-39. Describes the ways in which the cities of Missoula, Montana, Boulder, Colorado, and Crested Butte, Colorado dealt with trail conflicts, etc. created by mountain bikes.
4. Bannister, C., Groome, D. and Pawson, G. 1992. The Shared Use Debate: a Discussion on the Joint Use of Canal Towing Paths by Walkers, Anglers and Cyclists. Journal of Environmental Management 34: 149-158.
5. Bengert, B. Interest Group Perceptions of Trail Conditions in the Ganaraska Forest, Ontario: A Method for Determining Limits of Change. Hons. Thesis. Geography Department, Trent University, Peterborough, 1993.
6. Bennett, S., 1973. A Trail Rider's Guide to the Environment. American Motorcycle Association, Westerville, Ohio.
7. Bjorkman, A.W., 1996. Off-Road Bicycle and Hiking Trail User Interactions: A report to the Wisconsin Natural Resources Bureau of Research. Eagle, Wisconsin
8. Blahna, Dale J.; Vilter, James C.; Van Patten, Susan; Von Koch, Russ; Chavez, Deborah J. 1995. Slickrock trail mountainbiker survey. Unpublished draft supplied by author.
9. Bryan, H. 1979. Conflict in the Great Outdoors. Social studies No.4, Bureau of Public Administration, University of Alabama.
10. Bury, R.L., S.M. Holland and D.N. McEwen. Analysing Recreational Conflict: Understanding Why Conflict Occurs is requisite to Managing that Conflict. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. Sept.-Oct., pp. 401-403, 1983.
11. Butler, R.W. 1974. How to Control 1000 000 Snowmobilers. Canadian Geographical Journal 88(3): 4-13.
12. Cessford, G.R. 1995. Off-road Mountain Biking: A profile of riders and their recreation setting and experience preferences. Science & Research Series No.93, Department of Conservation, Wellington.
13. Cessford, G.R., 1995. Off-Road Impacts of Mountain Bikes A REVIEW AND DISCUSSION, SCIENCE & RESEARCH SERIES NO.92. Department of Conservation, P O Box 10-420, Wellington, New Zealand. ISSN 0113-3713, ISBN 0-478-01739-1
14. Chavez, D.J., 1997. Mountain Bike Management: Resource Protection and Social Conflicts. Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 36-40.
15. Chavez, Deborah J. 1993. User perceptions about mountain biking in the San Jacinto region: a management and researchpartnership. Unpublished draft supplied by the author.
16. Coughlan, D.P. 1994. Recreation Resource Conflict, Utilistation and Allocation. Unpublished Postgraduate Diploma in Tourism Dissertation. University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
17. Devall, W., Harry, J. 1981. Who hates whom in the great outdoors: The impact of recreational specialisation on technologies of play. Leisure Sciences 4(4): 399-418.
18. Gendron, J. and McMillan, B. 1995. Community Advisory Panels: A Method to Continually Involve Communities. Equus Consulting Group Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
19. Godin, V.B. and Leonard, R.E. 1979. Management Problems in Designated Wilderness Areas. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 34(3): 141-143.
20. Gramman, J.H. and Burdge, R. 1981. The effect of recreation goals on conflict perceptions: The case of water skiers and fishermen. Journal of Leisure Research 13(1): 15-27.
21. Grost, R.T., 1989. Managing the mountain bike. American Forests 95(3/4):50-53,75-77.
22. Haefeli, P., 1994. The Crystal River Valley bicycle trail study. Pitkin County, CO, Pitkin County Open Space and Trails. 60 pp. + 41 pp. appendix. The Crystal River Valley lies in the west central part of Colorado.
23. Hollenhorst, Steve J.; Schuett, Michael A.; Olson, David. 1993. An examination of the characteristics, preferences, andattitudes of mountain bike users of the National Forests: a preliminary analysis. Unpublished draft supplied by authors.
24. Hollenhorst, Steve J.; Schuett, Michael A.; Olson, David; Chavez, Deborah J.; Mainieri, Tina. 1995. A national study of mountain biking opinion leaders: characteristics, preferences, attitudes and conflicts. Unpublished draft supplied by authors.
25. Hollenhurst, S., Schuett, M. and D. Olson. An Examination of the Characteristics, Preferences, and Attitudes of Mountain Bike Users of the National Forests: A Preliminary Analysis. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Riverside, Ca., 1993.
26. Horn, C. 1994. Conflict in Recreation: the Case of Mountain-Bikers and Trampers. Unpublished Masterate thesis, Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand.
27. Ivy, M. I., Stewart, W.P. and C. Lue. Exploring the Role of Tolerance in Recreational Conflict. Journal of Leisure Research. Vol. 12, pp. 348-360, 1992.
28. Jackson, E.L. 1987. Outdoor recreation, participation and views on resource development and preservation. Leisure Sciences 9(4): 235-250.
29. Jackson, E.L. and Wong, R.A.G. 1982. Perceived conflict between urban cross-country skiers and snowmobilers in Alberta. Journal of Leisure Research 14(1): 47-62.
30. Jacob, G.R. and Schreyer, R. 1980. Conflict in Outdoor Recreation: A theoretical perspective. Journal of Leisure Research 12(4): 368-380.
31. Jacoby, J., 1990. Mountain bikes: A new dilemma for wildland recreation managers? Western Wildlands 16(1):25-28. Considers several management issues: (1) Should ATBs be allowed free access to backcountry trails, or should they be restricted as motorized vehicles are? (2) How can conflicts between traditional trail users - hikers and equestrians - be resolved? (3) Do ATBs cause environmental damage?
32. Jakus, P., Shaw, W.D., 1997. Congestion at Recreation Areas: Empirical evidence on perception, mitigating behavior and management preferences. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 50, No.4, pp 389-402
33. Jenkins, C. 1987. All Terrain (Mountain) Bicycles in New Zealand. A Discussion Paper. Department of Conservation, New Zealand.
34. Kulla, Andy, 1995: Conflict Management Techniques for Multi-Use Trails. Unpublished draft supplied by author.
35. Kulla, Andy. 1991. A new perspectives approach in National Forest recreation. Unpublished draft supplied by author.
36. Lucas, R.C. 1964. Wilderness Perception and Use: The Example of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area. Natural Resources Journal 3(3): 394-411.
37. Lucas, R.C. 1964. Wilderness Perception and Use: The Example of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area. Natural Resources Journal 3(3): 394-411.
38. Lucas, R.C. 1970. User Concepts of Wilderness and their Implications for Resource Management. Pp. 297-303 in Proshansky, H.M., Ittelson, W.H. and Rivlin, L.G. (Eds.), Environmental Psychology. Holf Rhinehart and Winston, New York.
39. Lucas, R.C. 1980. Use Patterns and Visitor Characteristics, Attitudes and Preferences in Nine Wilderness and Other Roadless Areas. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper INT-253. Intermountain Research Station.
40. Lucas, R.C. 1980. Use Patterns and Visitor Characteristics, Attitudes and Preferences in Nine Wilderness and Other Roadless Areas. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper INT-253. Intermountain Research Station.
41. Lucas, R.C. 1985. The Management of Recreational Visitors in Wilderness Areas in the United States. Pp. 122-136 in Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C. (Eds.), The Ecological Impacts of Outdoor Recreation on Mountain Areas in Europe and North America. Recreation Ecology Research Group Report No.9.
42. Manning, R.E. 1985. Crowding Norms in Backcountry Settings: A Review and Synthesis. Journal of Leisure Research 17(2): 75-89.
43. Manning, R.E. 1986. Studies in Outdoor Recreation - A Review and Synthesis of the Social Science Literature in Outdoor Recreation. Oregon State University Press 1986.
44. Marshall, MacKlin, Monaghan Ltd., 1995. Overview Study: Impact of Mountain Bicycle Activity in Metro Parks (Toronto, Ontario). R.D. Kivi, Sr. Project Manager, Transportation Engineering.
45. Moore, R.L., Barthlow, K., 1997. Principles for Minimizing Trail Conflicts: Applications to Mountain Biking. Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 2-4.
46. Moore, Roger L. 1994. Conflicts on multiple-use trails: synthesis of the literature and state of the practice. Report No.FHWA-PD-94-031, Federal Highway Administration; 67 p.
47. Noakes, D., 1996. A Community Workbook on multiple Use Trail Safety. Meewasin Valley Authority, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
48. Paquet, M.M., editor, 1990. Mountain Biking Symposium proceedings. Vancouver, BC, Outdoor Recreation Council of British Columbia. 88 pp. Proceedings of a "forum to explore ways of accomodating mountain biking in British Columbia while addressing the concerns of other trail users and land managers." Includes panel discussions on recreationists' and land managers' perspectives on mountain biking.
49. Parks Canada, Strategic Research & Analysis, Alberta Region, Heritage Canada, 1995. Jasper Day Use Trails Survey. Jasper National Park. 47pp.
50. Pettit, B.; Pontes, Patrick. 1987. Kepner-Trago analysis: mountain bicycle situation on Santa Barbara front trails managed bythe U.S. Forest Service. Unpublished draft supplied by author.
51. Pigram, J., 1983. Outdoor Recreation and Resource Management. St. Martin's Press, New York.
52. Ruddell, E.J., Hendricks, Wm.W., 1997. Martial Arts, Confucius, and Managing Mountain Bikes: The Role of Etiquette in Conflict Management. Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 41-44.
53. Ruff, A.R. and Mellors, O. 1993. The Mountain Bike - the dream machine? Landscape Research 18(3): 104-109.
54. Schneider, I.E., 1997. Conflict Resolution: Opportunities and Challenges in Recreation Management. Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 29-28.
55. Schuett, M.A. and Hollenhorst, S.J., 1994. Access, impacts, user conflict and more: Issues and problems facing mountain biking in the national forests. In: Fifth International Symposium on Society and Resource Management, Fort Collins, CO, June 7-10, 1994. Book of abstracts. Colorado State University, College of Natural Resources. P.234.
56. Shelby, B. 1980. Contrasting recreational experiences: Motors and oars in the Grand Canyon. Journal of soil and water conservation 85(3) 129-131.
57. Spray, R., 1986. The mountain bicycle: Friend or foe? In: International Congress on Trail and River Recreation, Vancouver, B.C., May 31-June 4, 1986. Proceedings. Vancouver, Outdoor Recreation Council of British Columbia. Pp.239-242.
58. Sprung, G., editor, 1996. Managing mountain bikes: A guide for activists and land managers. Boulder, CO, International Mountain Bicycling Association. 114 pp. A compilation of articles written over the past five years by IMBA's staff and volunteers. Many of the articles are reprinted from the IMBA Trail News.
59. Stankey, G.H. 1973. Visitor Perception of Wilderness Recreation Carrying Capacity. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper INT-142. Intermountain Research Station.
60. Stankey, G.H. 1980. A Comparison of the Carrying Capacity Perceptions Among Visitors to Two Wildernesses. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper, INT-242. Intermountain Research Station.
61. Stankey, G.H. and Manning, R. 1986. Carrying capacity of recreation settings. In: President's Commission on Americans Outdoors: a literature review. Washington DC. U.S Government Printing Office: Management 47-58.
62. Ury, W. Getting Disputes Resolved: Designing Systems to Cut the Costs of Conflict. Jossey-Bass Publishers, London, 1988.
63. Vaske, J.J., Donnelly, P.M., Potter, J., 1994. Visitor Impact Management in Backcountry Setting. Department of Natural Resource Recreation and Tourism, Human Dimensions in Natural Resources Unit, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523.
64. Viehman, John. 1990. Let's build trains, not walls. Backpacker. August: 3.
65. Wall, G. (ed.), 1989. Outdoor Recreation in Canada. Wiley, Toronto.
66. Ward, P. (ed.), 1994. Tools of the Trail Bibliography. American Hiking Society, P.O. Box 20160, Washington, DC 20041-2160. 34pp.
67. Washburne R.F. and Cole, D.N. 1983. Problems and Practices in Wilderness Management: A Survey of Managers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper INT-304. Intermountain Research Station.
68. Watson, A., Asp, C., Walsh, J., Kulla, A., 1997. The Contibution of Research to managing Conflict Among National Forest Users. Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 29-35.
69. Watson, A.E., Niccolucci, M.J. and Williams, D.R. 1993. Hikers and Recreational Stock Users: Predicting and Managing Recreation Conflicts in Three Wildernesses. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper INT-468. Intermountain Research Station.
70. Watson, A.E., Niccolucci, M.J. and Williams, D.R. 1994. The Nature of Conflict Between Hikers and Recreational Stock Users in the John Muir Wilderness. Journal of Leisure Research 26(4): 373-385.
71. Watson, A.E., Williams, D.R. and Daigle, J.J. 1991. Sources of Conflict Between Hikers and Mountain Bike Riders in the Rattlesnake NRA. Journal of Parks and Recreation Administration 9(3): 59-71.
72. Weir, D.V., Dyck, L.L., 1997. Discussion Paper on Environmental and Social Impact Review for Multiple Use Trails in Alberta. Unpublished, available from authors.
73. Wells, M.P., 1996. Thge social role of protected areas in the new South Africa. Environmental Conservation, Vol. 23, No.4, pp 322-331
74. Zonneveld, R., 1993. Trail Bicycling: A study of recreation conflict in national parks. Unpublished Masterate Thesis - 93-193, University of Alberta.
Botanical Impact Characterization
1. Bates, G.H., 1935. The vegetation of footpaths, sidewalks, cart tracks and gateways. Journal of Ecology 23:460-487.
2. Bayfield, N.G., 1985. Effects of extended use on footpaths in mountain areas of Britain. In: Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C., eds. The ecological impacts of outdoor recreation on mountain areas in Europe and North America. Wye, Kent, UK, Recreation Ecology Research Group, R.E.R.G. Report no. 9. pp.100-111. An account of the Recreation Ecology Research Group meeting, Ambleside, Cumbria, Sept., 1983.
3. Bayfield, N.G., 1985. Effects of extended use on footpaths in mountain areas of Britain. In: Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C., eds. The ecological impacts of outdoor recreation on mountain areas in Europe and North America. Wye, Kent, UK, Recreation Ecology Research Group, R.E.R.G. Report no. 9. pp.100-111. An account of the Recreation Ecology Research Group meeting, Ambleside, Cumbria, Sept., 1983.
4. Bayfield, N.G., 1986. Penetration of the Cairngorms Mountains, Scotland, by vehicle tracks and footpaths: Impacts and recovery. In R.C. Lucas (Compiler), Proc. National Wilderness Research Conference: Current Research. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, General Technical Report INT-212, Ogden, Utah. Pp121-128
5. Bennett, S., 1973. A Trail Rider's Guide to the Environment. American Motorcycle Association, Westerville, Ohio.
6. Benninger-Traux, M., Vankat, J.L., Schaefer, R.L., 1992. Trail corridors as habitats and conduits for movement of plant species in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA. Landscape Ecology 6:269-278.
7. Boucher, D.H. et al., 1991. Recovery of trailside vegetation from trampling in a tropical rain forest. Environmental Management 15(2):257-262. Co-authors are: J. Aviles, R. Chepote, O.E. Dominguez Gil, and B. Vilchez. The authors studied three trails with varying periods of use and recovery in a tropical rain forest in Costa Rica.
8. Brand, D.G., Bouman, O.T., Bouthillier, L., Kessler, W., Lapierre, L., 1996. The Model Forest Concept: a Model for Future Forest Management? Environmental Reviews. Vol. 4, pp. 65-90.
9. Bright, J.A., 1986. Hiker impact on herbaceous vegetation along trails in an evergreen woodland of Central Texas. Biological Conservation 36:53-69. The purpose of this study was to find out how trampling alters the vegetation along the trails in Meridian State Recreation Area.
10. Burde, J.H. and Renfro, J.R., 1986. Use impacts on the Appalachian Trail. In: Proceedings - National Wilderness Research Conference: Current Research. U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report INT-212:138-143.
11. Calais, S.S. and Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1986. Impact of Trampling on Natural Ecosystems in the Cradle Mountain-Lake St Clair National Park. Australian Geographer 17: 6-15.
12. Cessford, G.R., 1995. Off-Road Impacts of Mountain Bikes A REVIEW AND DISCUSSION, SCIENCE & RESEARCH SERIES NO.92. Department of Conservation, P O Box 10-420, Wellington, New Zealand. ISSN 0113-3713, ISBN 0-478-01739-1
13. Chappell, H.G., Ainsworth, J.F., Cameron, R.A.O., Radfern, M., 1971. The effects of trampling on chalk grassland ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology, 8: 869-882.
14. Charman, D.J. and Pollard, A.J., 1995. Long-term vegetation recovery after vehicle track abandonment on Dartmoor, SW England, U.K. Journal of Environmental Management 45(1):73-85. This study examined the variability of vegetation on tracks abandoned at different times in the past 24 years and compares this damaged vegetation with undamaged control sites.
15. Chilman, K.C., Vogel, J.J., and Conley, J.L., 1991. Turkey Bay Off-Road Vehicle Area at Land Between the Lakes: Monitoring use and impacts since 1973. Southern Illinois University, Department of Forestry; Tennessee Valley Authority; Motorcycle Industry Council. 35 pp. "This report describes how the ORV area and monitoring systems have evolved during 17 years."
16. Cole, D. , 1989. Area of Vegetation Loss: A New Index of Campsite Impact. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah.
17. Cole, D., 1989. Low-Impact Recreational Practises for Wilderness and Backcountry. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah.
18. Cole, D., Edward, G.S. and G.S. Schreiner (compilers), 1981. Impacts of Backcountry Recreation: Site Management and Rehabilitation. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah.
19. Cole, D., Hammond, T. and S. McCool, 1997. Information Quantity and Communication Effectiveness: Low-Impact Messages on Wilderness Trailside Bulletin Boards. Leisure Sciences. Vol. 19 pp. 59-72.
20. Cole, D., Peterson, M. and R. Lucas, 1987. Managing Wilderness Recreation Use: Common Problems and Potential Solutions. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah.
21. Cole, D.N. 1982. Wilderness campsite effects: effect of amount of use. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper INT-284. Intermountain Research Station, 34p.
22. Cole, D.N. 1985a. Management of Ecological Impacts in Wilderness Areas in the United States." Pp. 138-154 in Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C. (Eds): The Ecological Impacts of Outdoor Recreation on Mountain Areas in Europe and North America. Recreation Ecology Research Group Report No.9.
23. Cole, D.N. 1985b. Recreational Trampling Effects on Six Habitat Types in Western Montana. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper INT-350. Intermountain Research Station.
24. Cole, D.N. 1986. Resource impacts caused by recreation, in: The President's Commission on Americans Outdoors: a literature review. Washington, DC. U.S. Government Printing Office: Management 1-12.
25. Cole, D.N. 1987. Research on Soil and Vegetation in Wilderness: A State-of-Knowledge Review. Proceedings - National Wilderness Research Conference: Issues, State-of-Knowledge, Future Directions. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, General Technical Report INT-220: 135-177. Intermountain Research Station.
26. Cole, D.N., 1983. Assessing and monitoring Backcountry Trail Conditions. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Research Paper INT-303, Ogden, Utah.
27. Cole, D.N., 1988. Disturbance and recovery of trampled montane grassland and forests in Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Research Paper INT-220, Ogden, Utah. Pp. 425-466.
28. Cole, D.N., 1990. Ecological impacts of wilderness recreation and their management. In Hendee, J.C., Stankey, G.H., Lucas, R.C., Wilderness Management (2nd edition), North American Press, Golden, Colorado, pp. 425-466.
29. Cole, D.N., 1993. Trampling effects on mountain vegetation in Washington, Colorado, New Hampshire, and North Carolina. U.S. Forest Service, Research Paper INT-484. 56 pp. "This study examined the response of vegetation to experimental trampling that simulated the effects of hiking."
30. Cole, D.N., 1994. The Wilderness Threats Matrix: A Framework for Assessing Impacts. U.S. Forest Service, Research Note INT-RP-475.
31. Cole, D.N., 1995. Experimental trampling of vegetation. I. Relationship between trampling intensity and vegetation response. Journal of Applied Ecology 32(1):203-214. "The primary objectives of this paper are (i) to describe vegetational response to different levels of trampling, and (ii) to assess variation in response between vegetation types." (P.204)
32. Cole, D.N., 1995. Experimental trampling of vegetation. II. Predictors of resistance and resilience. Journal of Applied Ecology 32(1):215-224. Experimental trampling was conducted in 18 vegation types in five separate mountain regions in the United States.
33. Cole, D.N., 1995. Recreational trampling experiments: Effects of trampler weight and shoe type. U.S. Forest Service, Research Note INT-RN-425. 4 pp. "This paper presents the results of experiments that assess vegetational response to trampling by walkers of different weights and wearing different shoe types."
34. Cole, D.N., Bayfield, N.G., 1993. Recreational Trampling of Vegetation: Standard Experimental Proceedures. Biological Conservation 63: 209-215.
35. Cordell, K.H., Bergstrom J.L., Hartmann L.A. and English O.B.U. 1990. An analysis of the Outdoor Recreation and Wilderness Situation in the United States: 1989-2040. U.S. Department of Agriculture, General Technical Report RM-189.
36. Crawford, A.K., Liddle, M.J., 1977. The effect of trampling on neutral grassland. Biological Conservation 12:135-142.
37. Dale, D.R. and Weaver, T. 1974. Trampling Effects on Vegetation of the Trail Corridors of North Rocky Mountain Forests. Journal of Applied Ecology 11(2): 761-772.
38. Doucette, J.E., Kimball, K.D., 1990. Passive trail management in Northeastern alpine zones: A case study. In: More, T.A. et al., eds. Proceedings of the 1990 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium, Saratoga Springs, NY, Feb.25-28, 1990. U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report NE-145:195-201. "The objective of this study was to quantify the effectiveness of scree walls in protecting and revegetating alpine habitat damaged by hiker trampling in the eastern United States." (P.195)
39. Emanuelsson, U. 1985. Recreation Impact on Mountainous Areas in Northern Sweden. Pp. 63-73 in Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C. (Eds.): The Ecological Impacts of Outdoor Recreation on Mountain Areas in Europe and North America. Recreation Ecology Research Group, Report No.9.
40. Forest Conservation Authority. Ganaraska Forest Study Report. Port Hope, 1985.
41. Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority. A Conservation Strategy for the Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority. GRCA, Port Hope, 1992.
42. Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority. Environmental Monitoring Program for Recreational Use of the Ganaraska Forest: Terms of Reference. Adopted by the Ganaraska Region Recreational Users Committee, July 1988.
43. Grant, Wm. D. Environmental Impacts of Recreational Activities. Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority, Ontario, 1978.
44. Grant, Wm. D. Ganaraska Forest Study: Environmental Capability To Accommodate Outdoor Recreation Activities. Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority, Port Hope, Ontario, 1978.
45. Greene, T.A. and Nichols, T.J., 1995. Managing forests for military training purposes. University of Minnesota, Department of Forest Resources, Staff Paper Series no. 104. 111 pp. Includes a literature review on the effects of traffic on soils and vegetation.
46. Grost, R.T., 1989. Managing the mountain bike. American Forests 95(3/4):50-53,75-77.
47. Hall, C.N. and Kuss, F.R., 1989. Vegetation alteration along trails in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. Biological Conservation 48:211-227. "The objective of this study was to determine vegetation changes occuring along trails in an eastern ecosystem supporting second-growth deciduous forest." (P.211)
48. Hickler, M.G. and Bratton, S.P., 1979. Patterns of soil erosion and vegetation damage associated with trails and campsites in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In: Proceedings of the First Conference on Scientific Research in the National Parks, New Orleans, 1976. 2:1261-1266.
49. Holmes, D.O. 1979. Experiments on the Effects of Human Urine and Trampling on Subalpine Plants. Pp. 79-88 in Ittner, R., Potter, D.R., Agee, J.K. and Anschell, S. (Eds.), Recreational Impacts on Wildlands Conference, October 27-29, 1978, Seattle, Washington.
50. Hylgaard, T. Recovery of Plant Communities on Coastal Sand Dunes Disturbed By Human Trampling. Biological Conservation. Vol. 19, pp. 15-25, 1981.
51. Hylgaard, T. and M.J. Liddle. The Effect of Human Trampling on a Sand Dune Ecosystem Dominated by Empetrum Nigurm. Journal of Applied Ecology. Vol. 18, pp. 559-569, 1981.
52. Jackson, E.L. 1987. Outdoor recreation, participation and views on resource development and preservation. Leisure Sciences 9(4): 235-250.
53. Jakus, P., Shaw, W.D., 1997. Congestion at Recreation Areas: Empirical evidence on perception, mitigating behavior and management preferences. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 50, No.4, pp 389-402
54. Johnson, B.R., 1992. Mitigation of visitor impacts on high montane rare plant habitat: An integrated strategy of design, interpretation and restoration at Craggy Gardens, Blue Ridge Parkway. U.S. National Park Service, Technical Report NPS/SERBLRI/NRTR-93/07. 143 pp. "A visitor use study was conducted to study the relationship between visitor activities and disturbance of rare plant habitat."
55. Jubenville, A. and O'Sullivan, K., 1987. Relationship of vegetation type and slope gradient to trail erosion in interior Alaska. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 42(6):450-452. The White Mountain Summer Trail was used as the study site.
56. Ketchledge, E.H., Leonard, R.E., 1970. The Impact of man on the Adirondack high country. The Conservationist 42: 14-18.
57. Kuss, F. and Hall, C., 1993. Ground Flora Trampling Studies: Five Years After Closure. Environmental Management. Vol. 15(5), pp. 715-727.
58. Kuss, F.R. 1983. Hiking Boot Impacts on Woodland Trails. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 38(2): 119-121.
59. Kuss, F.R. and Graefe, A.R., 1985. Effects of recreation trampling on natural area vegetation. Journal of Leisure Research 17:165-183.
60. Kuss, F.R. and Hall, C.N., 1991. Ground flora trampling studies: Five years after closure. Environmental Management 15(5):715-727. "The purpose of this study was to follow the recolonization of experimental trail surfaces barren of vegetative cover and hiked at three levels of use intensity." (P.715)
61. Kuss, F.R. and Jenkins, W.A., 1985. Effects of footgear design on trail wear: A summary of five years of research. Proceedings Southeastern Recreation Research Conference, 1984. University of Georgia, Institute for Behavioral Research. Pp.39-49.
62. Kuss, F.R., 1986. A review of major factors influencing plant responses to recreation impacts. Environmental Management 10:637-650. "This article reviews some of the more important factors found to influence the susceptibility of plants to trampling impacts associated with recreational use of natural areas." (p.637)
63. Kuss, F.R., 1986. The effect of two hiking intensities on wildland trail wear. In; Proceedings - National Wilderness Research Conference: Current Research. U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report INT-212:158-165. This paper summarizes five years of study designed to quantify the effects of hiking on wildland trails and describes the physical effects of two hiking intensities on experimental trails located in New Hampshire and Virginia.
64. Kuss, F.R., Graefe, A.R. and Vaske, J.J. 1990. Visitor Impact Management: Volume One - A Review of Research. National Parks and Conservation Association. Washington DC.
65. Lance, A.N., Baugh, I.D. and Love, J.A. 1989. Continued Footpath Widening in the Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland. Biological Conservation 49: 201-214.
66. Leonard, R.E., McMahon, J.L., and Kehoe, K.M., 1985. Hiker trampling impacts on eastern forests. U.S. Forest Service, Research Paper NE-555. 5 pp. Trampling impact studies were conducted in two eastern forest stands in the White Mountains, New Hampshire. Changes in plant mortality on simulated trails during a trampling period and a recovery period were monitored photographically.
67. Liu, J.Y., 1993. Hiker trampling impacts on alpine vegetation along trails of Yushan National Park. Quarterly Journal of the Experimental Forest of National Taiwan University 7(3):53-72. In Chinese, with English summary.
68. Magill, A. and Twiss, R.H., 1965. A Guide for Recording Esthetic and Biologic Changes with Photographs. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, California.
69. Magill, Arthur W. 1993. Mountain bicyclists activities in the urban/wildland interface. Unpublished draft supplied by author.
70. Nagy, J.A.S. and Scotter, G.W., 1974. A quantitative assessment of the effects of human and horse trampling on natural areas, Waterton Lakes National Park. Edmonton, Canadian Wildlife Service. 145 pp.
71. Pounder, E.J., 1985. The effects of footpath development on vegetation at the Okstindan Research Station in arctic Norway. Biological Conservation 34: 273-288.
72. Price, M., 1985. Impacts of Recreational Activities on Alpine Vegetation in Western North America. Mountain Research and Development. Vol. 5(3), pp. 263-277.
73. Price, M.F. 1985. A Review of Research into the Impacts of Recreation on Alpine Vegetation in Western North America." Pp. 34-52 in Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C. (Eds.), The Ecological Impacts of Outdoor Recreation on Mountain Areas in Europe and North America. Recreation Ecology Research Group Report No.9.
74. Spencer, E.L., Stern, R.J., and Marchand, P.J., 1980. Vegetative and soil responses on the Appalachian National Scenic Trail. In: Proceedings of the Second Conference on Scientific Research in the National Parks, San Francisco, 1979. 9:93-100. "Studies of soil erosion and vegetative changes on the Appalachian Trail in New Hampshire and Maine showed varied responses to heavy hiker pressures." (p.93)
75. Sun, D., Liddle, M.J., 1993. A survey of trampling effects on vegetation and soil in eight tropical and sub-tropical sites. Environmental management 17: 497-510.
76. Teschner, D.P., DeWitt, G.M., Lindsay, J.J., 1979. Hiking impact on boreal forest vegetation and soils in Vermont's northern Green Mountains. University of Vermont, Recreation Management Program, Research Note SNR-RM 6, Burlinton, VT.
77. Vale, T. Vegetation Change and Park Purposes in the High Elevations of Yosemite National Park, California. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. Vol 77(1). pp. 1-18, 1987.
78. Weaver, T. and Dale, D., 1978. Trampling effects of hikers, motorcycles and horses in meadows and forests. Journal of Applied Ecology 15:451-457. Results indicated that horses and motorcycles were more damaging than hikers. Motorcycles were most damaging when going uphill while hikers and horses were most damaging when going downhill.
79. Weaver, T., Dale, D., and Hartley, E., 1979. The relationship of trail condition to use, vegetation, user, slope, season and time. In: Conference proceedings: Recreational Impact on Wildlands, Seattle, Oct. 27-29, 1978. U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, R-6-001. pp.94-100. "This paper reviews quantitative studies of trampling made in the Pacific Northwest with the object of relating trail condition to amount of use, vegetation used, type of user (hiker, motorcycle, or horse), slope, and season of use." (P.94)
80. Wells, C., 1984. All terrain vehicles on groomed snowmobile trails. Idaho Dept. of Parks and Recreation. 85 pp. + tables. Reports on a study of use of groomed snowmobile trails by ATVs and effects of such use on the trails.
81. Whinam, J., Cannell, E.J., Kirkpatrick, J.B., and Comfort, M., 1994. Studies on the potential impact of recreational horseriding on some Alpine environments of the Central Plateau, Tasmania. Journal of Environmental Management 40(2):103-117. "Experiments were designed to help determine the impact of horse trampling and horse manure on the soils and vegetation of this area." (P.103)
82. Willard, B.E. Marr, J.W., 1970. Effects of human activities on alpine tundra ecosystems in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Biological Conservation 2: 257-265.
Physical Impact Characterization
1. Bayfield, N.G. 1973. Use and Deterioration of Some Scottish Hill Paths. Journal of Applied Ecology 10: 635-644.
2. Bayfield, N.G., 1986. Penetration of the Cairngorms Mountains, Scotland, by vehicle tracks and footpaths: Impacts and recovery. In R.C. Lucas (Compiler), Proc. National Wilderness Research Conference: Current Research. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, General Technical Report INT-212, Ogden, Utah. Pp121-128
3. Bayfield, N.G., Lloyd, R.J., 1973. An approach to assessing the impact of use on a long distance footpath - the Pennine Way. Recreation News Supplement 8: 11-7.
4. Bennett, S., 1973. A Trail Rider's Guide to the Environment. American Motorcycle Association, Westerville, Ohio.
5. Bjorkman, A.W., 1996. Off-Road Bicycle and Hiking Trail User Interactions: A report to the Wisconsin Natural Resources Bureau of Research. Eagle, Wisconsin
6. Bocco, G., 1991. Gully erosion: Processes and models. Progress in Physical Geography 15: 392-406.
7. Bratton, S.P., Hickler, M.G., Graves, J.H., 1979. Trail erosion patterns in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Environmental Management 3: 431-445.
8. Bryan, R.B. 1977. The Influence of Soil Properties or Degradation of Mountain Hiking Trails at Groevelsjon. Geografiska Annaler 59: 49-65.
9. Burde, J.H. and Renfro, J.R., 1986. Use impacts on the Appalachian Trail. In: Proceedings - National Wilderness Research Conference: Current Research. U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report INT-212:138-143.
10. Buttle, J.M. Channel Changes Following Headwater Reforestation: The Ganaraska River, Ontario, Canada. Geografiska Annaler. Vol. 77A(3), pp. 107-118, 1995.
11. Buttle, J.M. Hydrological Response to Reforestation in the Ganaraska River Basin, Southern Ontario. The Canadian Geographer. Vol. 38(3), pp. 240-53, 1994.
12. Cessford, G.R., 1995. Off-Road Impacts of Mountain Bikes A REVIEW AND DISCUSSION, SCIENCE & RESEARCH SERIES NO.92. Department of Conservation, P O Box 10-420, Wellington, New Zealand. ISSN 0113-3713, ISBN 0-478-01739-1
13. Chase, J. 1987. Mountain bikes, the gnarly question of knobby tires. Backpacker. January: 36-37.
14. Chavez, D.J., 1997. Mountain Bike Management: Resource Protection and Social Conflicts. Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 36-40.
15. Chilman, K.C., Vogel, J.J., and Conley, J.L., 1991. Turkey Bay Off-Road Vehicle Area at Land Between the Lakes: Monitoring use and impacts since 1973. Southern Illinois University, Department of Forestry; Tennessee Valley Authority; Motorcycle Industry Council. 35 pp. "This report describes how the ORV area and monitoring systems have evolved during 17 years."
16. Cole, D., 1989. Low-Impact Recreational Practises for Wilderness and Backcountry. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah.
17. Cole, D., Edward, G.S. and G.S. Schreiner (compilers), 1981. Impacts of Backcountry Recreation: Site Management and Rehabilitation. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah.
18. Cole, D., Hammond, T. and S. McCool, 1997. Information Quantity and Communication Effectiveness: Low-Impact Messages on Wilderness Trailside Bulletin Boards. Leisure Sciences. Vol. 19 pp. 59-72.
19. Cole, D., Peterson, M. and R. Lucas, 1987. Managing Wilderness Recreation Use: Common Problems and Potential Solutions. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah.
20. Cole, D.N. 1982. Wilderness campsite effects: effect of amount of use. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper INT-284. Intermountain Research Station, 34p.
21. Cole, D.N. 1985a. Management of Ecological Impacts in Wilderness Areas in the United States." Pp. 138-154 in Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C. (Eds): The Ecological Impacts of Outdoor Recreation on Mountain Areas in Europe and North America. Recreation Ecology Research Group Report No.9.
22. Cole, D.N. 1986. Resource impacts caused by recreation, in: The President's Commission on Americans Outdoors: a literature review. Washington, DC. U.S. Government Printing Office: Management 1-12.
23. Cole, D.N., 1983. Assessing and monitoring Backcountry Trail Conditions. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Research Paper INT-303, Ogden, Utah.
24. Cole, D.N., 1991. Changes on trails in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness, Montana, 1978-89. U.S. Forest Service, Research Paper INT-450. 5 pp. "Three trails on the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness were monitored over an 11 year period. Although individual trail segments changed over this period, there was no net erosion from these trail systems." (P.5)
25. Cole, D.N., 1994. The Wilderness Threats Matrix: A Framework for Assessing Impacts. U.S. Forest Service, Research Note INT-RP-475.
26. Coleman, R.A., 1981. Footpath erosion in the English Lake District. Applied Geography 1: 121-131.
27. Cordell, K.H., Bergstrom J.L., Hartmann L.A. and English O.B.U. 1990. An analysis of the Outdoor Recreation and Wilderness Situation in the United States: 1989-2040. U.S. Department of Agriculture, General Technical Report RM-189.
28. Edger, C.O., 1997. Mountain Biking and the Marin Municipal Water District Watershed. Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 5-10.
29. Fish, E.B., Brothers, G.L., Lewis, R.B., 1981. Erosional impacts of trails in Guadelupe Mountains National Parks, Texas. Landscape Planning 8: 387-398.
30. Garland, G.G., 1987. Rates of soil loss from mountain footpaths: An experimental study in the Drakensberg Mountains, South Africa. Applied Geography 7: 41-54.
31. Garland, G.G., 1990. Techniques for assessing erosion risk from mountain footpaths. Environmental Management 14(6):793-798. "The objective of this research was to develop a technique for assessing risk of erosion from footpaths before they are constructed, to be used as a tool for selecting the most viable, cost-efficient routes." The technique was tested on a path in the Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa.
32. Garland, G.G., Hudson, C., Blackshaw, J., 1985. An approach to the study of path erosion in the Natal Drakensberg, a mountain wilderness area. Environmental Conservation 12: 337-342, 335.
33. Godin, V.B. and Leonard, R.E. 1979. Management Problems in Designated Wilderness Areas. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 34(3): 141-143.
34. Helgath, S.F., 1975. Trail Deterioration in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Research Note INT-193, Ogden, Utah.
35. Hendricks, Wm., W., 1997. Mountain Bike Management and Research: An Introduction. Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 2-4.
36. Hickler, M.G. and Bratton, S.P., 1979. Patterns of soil erosion and vegetation damage associated with trails and campsites in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In: Proceedings of the First Conference on Scientific Research in the National Parks, New Orleans, 1976. 2:1261-1266.
37. Jackson, E.L. 1987. Outdoor recreation, participation and views on resource development and preservation. Leisure Sciences 9(4): 235-250.
38. Jacoby, J., 1990. Mountain bikes: A new dilemma for wildland recreation managers? Western Wildlands 16(1):25-28. Considers several management issues: (1) Should ATBs be allowed free access to backcountry trails, or should they be restricted as motorized vehicles are? (2) How can conflicts between traditional trail users - hikers and equestrians - be resolved? (3) Do ATBs cause environmental damage?
39. Jenkins, C. 1987. All Terrain (Mountain) Bicycles in New Zealand. A Discussion Paper. Department of Conservation, New Zealand.
40. Ketcheson, G. and W. Megahan. Sediment Production and Downslope Sediment Transport from Forest Roads in Granitic Watersheds. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah, 1996.
41. Ketchledge, E.H., Leonard, R.E., 1970. The Impact of man on the Adirondack high country. The Conservationist 42: 14-18.
42. Kuss, F.R., Graefe, A.R. and Vaske, J.J. 1990. Visitor Impact Management: Volume One - A Review of Research. National Parks and Conservation Association. Washington DC.
43. Leung, Y.F. and Marion, J.L., 1996. Trail degradation as influenced by environmental factors: A state-of-the-knowledge review. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 51(2):130-136. "The objectives of this paper are three-fold: (1) to clarify terms used in trail condition research; (2) to assess the development of trail degradation research; and (3) to review and summarize the influence of environmental fctors affecting trail degradation." (P.130)
44. Leung, Y.F., 1992. A study of Trail Degradation along the Pat Sin Range, North New Territories, Hong Kong. M.Phil. Thesis, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
45. Liddle, M.J., Greig-Smith, P., 1975 A Survey of tracks and paths in a sand dune ecosystem, I. Soils. Journal of Applied Ecology 12: 893-908.
46. Magill, A. and Twiss, R.H., 1965. A Guide for Recording Esthetic and Biologic Changes with Photographs. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, California.
47. Magill, Arthur W. 1993. Mountain bicyclists activities in the urban/wildland interface. Unpublished draft supplied by author.
48. Marion, J.L., 1994. An assessment of trail conditions in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. USDI National Park Service, Southeast Region, Research/Resources Management Report, Atlanta, Georgia.
49. Marsh, J.S. et al. Impacts of Off-Road Vehicles on the Ganaraska Forest. Trail Studies Unit, Trent University, Peterborough, 1989.
50. Marshall, MacKlin, Monaghan Ltd., 1995. Overview Study: Impact of Mountain Bicycle Activity in Metro Parks (Toronto, Ontario). R.D. Kivi, Sr. Project Manager, Transportation Engineering.
51. McDonnell, J., Leopold, D.J., Stribling, J.B. and L. Robert Neville (eds.), 1996. Watershed Restoration Management: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Considerations. Syracuse, New York.
52. McQuaid-Cook, J. 1978. Effects of Hikers and Horses on Mountain Trails. Journal of Environmental Management 6: 209-212.
53. Meinecke, E.P., 1928. The effect of excessive tourist travel in the California Redwood Parks. California State Printing Office, Sacremento, California.
54. Morgan, R.P.C., 1985. The impact of recreation on mountain soils: Towards a predictive model for soil erosion. In: Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C., eds. The ecological impacts of outdoor recreation on mountain areas in Europe and North America. Wye, Kent, UK, Recreation Ecology Research Group, R.E.R.G. Report no. 9. pp.112-121. An account of the Recreation Ecology Research Group meeting, Ambleside, Cumbria, Sept., 1983.
55. Mortensen, C. , 1989. Visitor Use Impacts Within The Knobstone Trail Corridor. Journal of Water and Soil Conservation. March/April, Vol. 44(2), pp. 156-159.
56. National Park Service, 1987. Parkwide bicycle trail study/traffic safety study/environmental assessment, Cape Cod National Seashore, Massachusetts. Draft study. U.S. National Park Service. 112 pp.
57. Noe, F.P., Hull, R.B. and Wellman, J.D. 1983. Normative Response and Norm Activation Among ORU users within a Seashore Environment. Leisure Sciences 5(2): 127-142.
58. Oak Ridges Moraine Technical Working Committee, 1994. The Oak Ridges Moraine Area Strategy for the Greater Toronto Area: An Ecological Approach to the Protection and Management of the Oak Ridges Moraine. Queen's Printer for Ontario.
59. p Cole, D.N. 1987. Research on Soil and Vegetation in Wilderness: A State-of-Knowledge Review. Proceedings - National Wilderness Research Conference: Issues, State-of-Knowledge, Future Directions. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, General Technical Report INT-220: 135-177. Intermountain Research Station.
60. Parks Canada, 1997. Environmental Screening Report: Opening of Ross Lake Trail to Mountain Bike Use. Lake Louise, Banff National Park, Alberta.
61. Pigram, J., 1983. Outdoor Recreation and Resource Management. St. Martin's Press, New York.
62. Quinn, N.W., Morgan, R.P.C. and Smith, A.J. 1980. Simulation of Soil Erosion Induced by Human Trampling. Journal of Environmental Management 10: 155-165.
63. Richardson, A.H. A Report on the Ganaraska Watershed. A Study in Land Use with Plans for the Rehabilitation of the Area in the Post War Period. Dominion and Ontario Governments, Toronto, 1944.
64. Root, J.D., Knapik, L.J., 1972. Trail Conditions along a portion of the Great Divide Trail Route, Alberta and British Columbia Mountains. Research Council of Alberta, Report No. 72-5, Edmonton, Alberta.
65. Schuett, M.A. and Hollenhorst, S.J., 1994. Access, impacts, user conflict and more: Issues and problems facing mountain biking in the national forests. In: Fifth International Symposium on Society and Resource Management, Fort Collins, CO, June 7-10, 1994. Book of abstracts. Colorado State University, College of Natural Resources. P.234.
66. Seney, J. 1990. Erosional impact of hikers, horses, motorcycles and off-road bicycles on mountain trails. Unpublished research report on master's thesis, Department of Plant and Soil Science, Montana State University, Bozeman MT 59717.
67. Seney, J.P., Wilson, J.P., 1992. Erosional impact of hikers, horses, motorcycles and off-road bicycles on mountain trails. Montana State University, Department of Plants and Soils. 32 pp. "This study examined the relative impact of hikers, horses, motorcycles and off-road bicycles in terms of water runoff and sediment yield from 108 sample plots on existing trails in or near the Gallatin National Forest, Montana."
68. Simmons, D.G. and Cessford, G.R. 1989. The St James Walkway Study. Occasional Paper No.1. Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand.
69. Smith, D.L.O. and Dickson, J.W. 1990. Contributions of Vehicle Weight and Ground Pressure to Soil Compaction. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 46: 13-29.
70. Spencer, E.L., Stern, R.J., and Marchand, P.J., 1980. Vegetative and soil responses on the Appalachian National Scenic Trail. In: Proceedings of the Second Conference on Scientific Research in the National Parks, San Francisco, 1979. 9:93-100. "Studies of soil erosion and vegetative changes on the Appalachian Trail in New Hampshire and Maine showed varied responses to heavy hiker pressures." (p.93)
71. Stewart, D.P.C., Cameron, K.C., 1992. Effects of trampling on the soils of the St. James Walkway, New Zealand. Soil Use & Management 8: 30-36.
72. Stohlgren, T.J., and D.J. Parsons. 1992. Evaluating recreational wilderness opportunities: Application of impact matrix. Environmental Management 16(3):397-403
73. Storm Coalition (compilers), 1997. Oak Ridges Moraine. Boston Mills Press, Erin.
74. Summer, R., 1986. Geomorphic Impacts of Horse Traffic on Montane Landforms. Journal of Water and Soil Conservation. March/April, Vol. 41(2), pp. 126-128.
75. Summer, R.M., 1980. Impact of horse traffic on trails in Rocky Mountain National Park. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 35(2):85-87. Disturbances related to the impact of horses on trails were measured. Recommendations for locating and managing horse trails are given.
76. Sun, D., Liddle, M.J., 1993. A survey of trampling effects on vegetation and soil in eight tropical and sub-tropical sites. Environmental management 17: 497-510.
77. Tedford, J. Ganaraska Forest Study, Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority, 1980.
78. Teschner, D.P., DeWitt, G.M., Lindsay, J.J., 1979. Hiking impact on boreal forest vegetation and soils in Vermont's northern Green Mountains. University of Vermont, Recreation Management Program, Research Note SNR-RM 6, Burlinton, VT.
79. Tinsley, B.E. and Fish, E.B., 1985. Evaluation of trail erosion in Guadalupe Mountains National Park, Texas. Landscape Planning 12:29-47. "Permanently established erosion transects were studied to determine whether on-trail erosion was significantly greater than that occurring off-trail and to establish the factors which significantly contribute to the erosional/depositional process." (P.29)
80. Vaske, J.J., Donnelly, P.M., Potter, J., 1994. Visitor Impact Management in Backcountry Setting. Department of Natural Resource Recreation and Tourism, Human Dimensions in Natural Resources Unit, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523.
81. Whinam, J., Cannell, E.J., Kirkpatrick, J.B., and Comfort, M., 1994. Studies on the potential impact of recreational horseriding on some Alpine environments of the Central Plateau, Tasmania. Journal of Environmental Management 40(2):103-117. "Experiments were designed to help determine the impact of horse trampling and horse manure on the soils and vegetation of this area." (P.103)
82. Whittaker, P. and Bratton, S., 1980. A comparison of surface impact by hiking and horseback riding on four trail surfaces in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In: Proceedings of the Second Conference on Scientific Research in the National Parks, San Francisco, 1979. 9:86-92.
83. Wilshire, H.G., 1980. The ORV phenomenon - management - impact: The Ballinger Canyon designated motorcycle trail system. In: Andrews, R.N.L. and Nowak, P.F., eds. Off-road vehicle use: A management challenge. U.S.D.A., Office of Environmental Quality; University of Michigan, School of Natural Resources; and University of Michigan Extension Service. pp.78-90. The author criticizes the designated trail system proposed for Ballinger Canyon as having "no sound foundation for protection of the natural resources of the area." (P.90)
84. Wilson, J.P. and Seney, J.P., 1994. Erosional impact of hikers, horses, motorcycles, and off-road bicycles on mountain trails in Montana. Mountain Research and Development 14(1):77-88. "This study examined the relative impact of hikers, horses, motorcycles, and off-road bicycles in terms of water runoff and sediment yield from 108 sample plots on existing trails in or near Gallatin National Forest, Montana." (P.77)
85. Wlodek, J. Ganaraska - Hillslope Sediment Movement. Hons. Thesis. Geography Department, Trent University, Peterborough, 1993.
Zoological/Ecological Impact Characterization
1. Abensperg-Traun, Smith, G.T., Arnold, G.W., Steven, D.E., 1996. The effects of habitat fragmentation and livestock grazing on animal communities in remnant gimlet Eucalyptus salubris woodland in the Western Australian Wheatbelt I Arthopods. Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 33, No. 6, p. 1281 - 1300.
2. Altmann, M. 1958. The flight distance in free-ranging big game. J. Wildl. Manage. 22:207-209.
3. Belanger, L. and J. Bedard. 1990. Energetic cost of man-induced disturbance to staging snow geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 54(1):36-41.
4. Belanger, L. and J. Bedard. 1995. Hunting and waterfowl. In Wildlife and Recreationists, eds., R.L. Knight and K.J. Gutzwiller, 243-256. Washington: Island Press.
5. Bennett, S., 1973. A Trail Rider's Guide to the Environment. American Motorcycle Association, Westerville, Ohio.
6. Bowles, A. 1995. Responses of wildlife to noise. In Wildlife and Recreationists, eds., R.L. Knight and K.J. Gutzwiller, 109-156. Washington: Island Press.
7. Brand, D.G., Bouman, O.T., Bouthillier, L., Kessler, W., Lapierre, L., 1996. The Model Forest Concept: a Model for Future Forest Management? Environmental Reviews. Vol. 4, pp. 65-90.
8. Cole, D., 1989. Low-Impact Recreational Practises for Wilderness and Backcountry. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah.
9. Cole, D., Edward, G.S. and G.S. Schreiner (compilers), 1981. Impacts of Backcountry Recreation: Site Management and Rehabilitation. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah.
10. Cole, D., Hammond, T. and S. McCool, 1997. Information Quantity and Communication Effectiveness: Low-Impact Messages on Wilderness Trailside Bulletin Boards. Leisure Sciences. Vol. 19 pp. 59-72.
11. Cole, D., Peterson, M. and R. Lucas, 1987. Managing Wilderness Recreation Use: Common Problems and Potential Solutions. U.S. Government Printing Office, Utah.
12. Cole, D.N. 1982. Wilderness campsite effects: effect of amount of use. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper INT-284. Intermountain Research Station, 34p.
13. Cole, D.N. 1985a. Management of Ecological Impacts in Wilderness Areas in the United States." Pp. 138-154 in Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C. (Eds): The Ecological Impacts of Outdoor Recreation on Mountain Areas in Europe and North America. Recreation Ecology Research Group Report No.9.
14. Cole, D.N. 1986. Resource impacts caused by recreation, in: The President's Commission on Americans Outdoors: a literature review. Washington, DC. U.S. Government Printing Office: Management 1-12.
15. Cole, D.N., 1994. The Wilderness Threats Matrix: A Framework for Assessing Impacts. U.S. Forest Service, Research Note INT-RP-475.
16. Cordell, K.H., Bergstrom J.L., Hartmann L.A. and English O.B.U. 1990. An analysis of the Outdoor Recreation and Wilderness Situation in the United States: 1989-2040. U.S. Department of Agriculture, General Technical Report RM-189.
17. Dorrance, M.J., Savage, P.J., Huff, D.E. 1975. Effects of snowmobile on white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(3):563-569.
18. Ferguson, M.A.D. and L.B. Keith. 1982. Influence of nordic skiing on the distribution of moose and elk in Elk Island National Park, Alberta. Can. Field Nat. 96(1):69-78.
19. Fitzgibbon, C.D., 1997. Small mammals in farm woodlands: Effects of habitat, isolation and surrounding landuse patterns. Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 34, No. 2.
20. Freddy, D.J., Whitcomb, M.B., Fowler, M.C. 1986. Responses of mule deer to disturbance by persons afoot and snowmobiles. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 14:63-68.
21. Freddy, J. Bronaugh, W. and M. Fowler. Responses of Mule Deer to Disturbance By Persons Afoot and Snowmobiles. Wildlife Society Bulletin. Vol. 14, pp. 63-68, 1986.
22. Gabrielsen, G.W. and E.N. Smith. 1995. Physiological responses of wildlife to disturbance. In Wildlife and Recreationists, eds., R.L. Knight and K.J. Gutzwiller, 95-108. Washington: Island Press.
23. Gibeau, M.L., Herrero, S., Kansas, J.L. and B. Benn. 1996. Grizzly bear population and habitat status in Banff National Park: A report to the Banff Bow Valley Task Force. 62pp..
24. Goodrich, J.M. and J. Berger. 1994. Winter recreation and hibernating black bears Ursus americanus. Biol. Cons. 67:105-110.
25. Gutzwiller, K.J. 1995. Recreational disturbance and wildlife communities. In Wildlife and Recreationists, eds., R.L. Knight and K.J. Gutzwiller, 169-182. Washington: Island Press.
26. Gutzwiller, K.J., 1993. Serial management experiments: an adaptive approach to reduce recreational impacts on wildlife. Trans 58th. N.A. Wildl. And Nat. Res. Conf. 528-537.
27. Gutzwiller, K.J., Wiednmann, R.T., Clements, K.L. and S.H. Anderson. 1994. Effects of human intrusion on song occurrence and singing consistency in subalpine birds. Auk 111(1):28-37.
28. Harrington, F.H. and A.M. Veitch. 1992. Calving success of woodland caribou exposed to low-level jet fighter overflights. Arctic 45(3):213-218.
29. Herrero, S., McCrory, W. and B. Pelchat. 1983. Using grizzly bear habitat evaluations to locate trails and campsites in Kananaskis Provincial Park. Int. Conf. Bear Res. And Manage. 6:187-193.
30. Heuer, K. 1993. Human-Bear Conflicts: A literature review of causes, symptoms and management options with an emphasis on aversive conditioning. Banff National Park Warden Service, 34pp..
31. Heuer, K. and J. Wierzchowski. In progress. Wildlife corridors imposed by hydrological power canals, highway fencing and town sites in Banff National Park: a case study of wolf, cougar and lynx movements. Ecology Base Research, Banff, Alberta.
32. Heuer, K., 1997. Wildlife Disturbance from Backcountry Trail Use: A Literature Review. Prepared for Backcountry Division, Banff Warden Service, Banff National Park
33. Hicks, L.L. and J.M. Elder. 1979. Human disturbance of Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. J. Wildl. Manage. 43(4):909-915.
34. Hummel, M. and S. Pettigrew. 1991. Wild Hunters: Predators in Peril. Key Porter Books, Toronto. 244pp..
35. Hutcheson, J., F. Noe, and R. Shaw (eds.) 1992 (I think). Pleasure and Preservation: An Outdoor Recreation Policy Dilemma. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.
36. Jackson, E.L. 1987. Outdoor recreation, participation and views on resource development and preservation. Leisure Sciences 9(4): 235-250.
37. Jakus, P., Shaw, W.D., 1997. Congestion at Recreation Areas: Empirical evidence on perception, mitigating behavior and management preferences. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 50, No.4, pp 389-402
38. Kernohan, B.J., Jinks, J.A., Naughe, D.E., Millspaugh, J.J., 1996. Estimating 24 hr. habitat patterns of white tailed deer from diurnal use. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 48, No. 3, pp 299-303
39. Ketchledge, E.H., Leonard, R.E., 1970. The Impact of man on the Adirondack high country. The Conservationist 42: 14-18.
40. Klein, M.L. 1993. Waterbird behavioural responses to human disturbances. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 21:31-39.
41. Knight, R.L. and D.N. Cole. 1995a. Wildlife responses to recreationists. In Wildlife and Recreationists, eds., R.L. Knight and K.J. Gutzwiller, 51-70. Washington: Island Press.
42. Knight, R.L. and D.N. Cole. 1995b. Factors that influence wildlife responses to recreationists. In Wildlife and Recreationists, eds., R.L. Knight and K.J. Gutzwiller, 71-80. Washington: Island Press.
43. Knight, R.L. and K.J. Gutzwiller (eds.) 1995. Wildlife and Recreationists: Coexistence Through Management and Research. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
44. Kovacs, K.M. and S. Innes. 1990. The impacts of tourism on harp seals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. Appl. Animal Behav. Science. 26:15-26.
45. Kucera, E. 1976. Deer flushing distance as related to observer's mode of travel. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 4:119-120.
46. Kuss, F.R., Graefe, A.R. and Vaske, J.J. 1990. Visitor Impact Management: Volume One - A Review of Research. National Parks and Conservation Association. Washington DC.
47. MacArthur, R.A., Geist, V., Johnston, R.H. 1982. Cardiac and behavioural response of mountain sheep to human disturbance. J. Wildl. Manage. 46(2) 351-358.
48. MacArthur, R.A., Johnston, R. and Geist, V. 1979. Factors influencing heart rate in free-ranging bighorn sheep: a physiological approach to the study of wildlife harassment. Can. J. Zool. 57:2010-2021.
49. Magill, A. and Twiss, R.H., 1965. A Guide for Recording Esthetic and Biologic Changes with Photographs. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, California.
50. Magill, Arthur W. 1993. Mountain bicyclists activities in the urban/wildland interface. Unpublished draft supplied by author.
51. McLellan, B.N. and D.M. Shackleton. 1989. Immediate reactions of grizzly bears to human activities. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 17:269-274.
52. Pomerantz, G., Decker, D., Geoff, G. and K. Purdy. Assessing Impact of Recreation on Wildlife: A Classification Scheme. Wildlife Society Bulletin. Vol. 16, pp. 58-62, 1988.
53. Richard, L. (ed.). Wildlife and Recreationists: Coexistence through Management and Research. Island Press, Washington, D.C., 1995.
54. Romesburg, H.C. 1981. Wildlife science: gaining reliable knowledge. J. Wildl. Manage. 45(2):293-313.
55. Root, B.G., Fritzell, E.K., N.F. Giessman. 1988. Effects of intensive hunting on white-tailed deer movement. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 16:145-151.
56. Schultz, R.D. and J.A. Bailey. 1978. Response of national park elk to human activity. J. Wildl. Manage. 42(1):91-100.
57. Smith, G.T., Arnold, G.W., Sarve, S., Abensperg-Traun, Steven, D.E., 1996. The effects of habitat fragmentation and livestock grazing on animal communities in remnant gimlet Eucalyptus salubris woodland in the Western Australian Wheatbelt II Lizards. Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 33, No. 6, p. 1301 - 1310.
58. Soane, B.D., Blackwell, P.S., Dickson, J.W. and Painter, D.J. 1981. Compaction by Agricultural Vehicles: A Review of Compaction under Tyres and other Running Gear. Soil and Tillage Research 1: 373-400.
59. Stalmaster, M.V. and J.R. Newman. 1978. Behavioural responses of wintering bald eagles to human activity. J. Wildl. Manage. 42(3):506-513.
60. Unknown, 1990. Factors affecting the distribution of bald eagles and effects of human activity on bald eagles wintering along the Boise River. M.Sc. thesis. Boise State Univ.
61. Weaver, T., Dale, D., and Hartley, E., 1979. The relationship of trail condition to use, vegetation, user, slope, season and time. In: Conference proceedings: Recreational Impact on Wildlands, Seattle, Oct. 27-29, 1978. U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, R-6-001. pp.94-100. "This paper reviews quantitative studies of trampling made in the Pacific Northwest with the object of relating trail condition to amount of use, vegetation used, type of user (hiker, motorcycle, or horse), slope, and season of use." (P.94)
62. Wells, C., 1984. All terrain vehicles on groomed snowmobile trails. Idaho Dept. of Parks and Recreation. 85 pp. + tables. Reports on a study of use of groomed snowmobile trails by ATVs and effects of such use on the trails.
63. Willard, B.E. Marr, J.W., 1970. Effects of human activities on alpine tundra ecosystems in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Biological Conservation 2: 257-265.
64. Yarmoloy, C., Beyer, M. and Geist, V. 1988. Behaviour responses and reproduction of mule deer does following experimental harassment with an all-terrain vehicle. Can. Field Nat. 102(3):425-429.
65. Zuidema, P.A., Sayer, J.A., Dijkman, W., 1996. Forest fragmentation and biodiversity: Case for intermediate sized conservation areas. Environmental Conservation, Vol. 23, No.4, pp 290-297.
Legal Issues
1. McCarthy Tetrault Barristers & Solicitors, 1995. The Waterfront Trail: Liability and Risk Management Issues. Prepared for, and available from, the Waterfront Regeneration Trust, Box 129, Toronto, ON M5J 1A7. 33pp.
2. English, J.W., 1986. Liability aspects of bikeway designation: A special report. Washington, D.C., Bicycle Federation of America. 62 pp.
3. Sorton, A., 1989. Bicycle facility design and legal liability. In: Bicycle Federation of America. Pro Bike 88: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Bicycle Programs and Promotions, Tucson, Arizona, Oct.8-12, 1988. Washington, D.C., Bicycle Federation of America, Inc. Pp.63-66.
4. Sorton, A., 1991. Bicycle facility design and legal liability. In: Bicycle Federation of America. Pro Bike 90: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Bicycle Programs and Promotions, Arlington, VA and Washington, DC, Sept., 1990. Washington, DC, Bicycle Federation of America, Inc. Pp.50-51.
5. Ward, P. (ed.), 1994. Tools of the Trail Bibliography. American Hiking Society, P.O. Box 20160, Washington, DC 20041-2160. 34pp.
Trail Planning & Management
1. AASHTO Task Force on Geometric Design, 1991. Guide for the development of bicycle facilities. Washington, DC, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 44 pp. "This guide provides information to help accomodate bicycle traffic in all riding environments." (P.1)
2. Adams, P.W. and Hairston, A.B., 1996. Calling All Experts: Using Science to Direct Policy. Journal of Forestry, Vol. 94, No. 4, p 27-30.
3. Alberta Recreation and Parks Association, 1996. Park Development Manual. 96pp. 11579 Groat Rd., Edmonton, AB T5M 3K6.
4. Alberta Recreation and Parks, 1988. Cross Country Ski Trails. 69pp.
5. Alberta Snowmobile Association, 1993. Trail Development Manual. 88pp. 11579 Groat Rd., Edmonton, AB T5M 3K6.
6. Alberta Tourism, Parks & Recreation, 1989. Recreation Trails. 65pp.
7. Amy, D.J. The Politics of Environmental Mediation. Columbia University Press, New York, 1987.
8. Arizona Bicycle Task Force, 1988. Arizona bicycle facilities planning and design guidelines. [Phoenix] Arizona Bicycle Task Force, Facilities Planning Committee. 122 pp. The purpose of this publication is "to provide for more uniformity in the planning, design and construction of bicycle facilities."
9. Ashworth, G. J. and A.G.J. Dietvorst (eds.). Tourism and Spatial Transformations. CAB International, pp. 303-316, 1995.
10. Ballantyne, R., 1979. Considerations for trail design in the State of Louisiana: A handbook of guidelines for trail development in the Pelican State. Louisiana Division of Outdoor Recreation. 87 pp. Includes design guidelines for hiking trails, off road vehicle trails, bicycle trails, canoe trails, equestrian trails, handicap trails, and interpretive trails.
11. Bay Area Ridge Trail Council, 1991. Community Trail Planning Workshops. 60pp.
12. Bengert, B. Interest Group Perceptions of Trail Conditions in the Ganaraska Forest, Ontario: A Method for Determining Limits of Change. Hons. Thesis. Geography Department, Trent University, Peterborough, 1993.
13. Bengert, B. and J.S. Marsh (eds.). Trail Development and Tourism. The Proceedings of the 1996 Annual Conference of the Ontario Trails Conference. Trail Studies Unit, Trent University, Ontario, pp. 87-109.
14. Berry, G., 1997. "The Wildlife Habitat Trail" in: Storm Coalition, Oak Ridges Moraine, Boston Mills Press, Erin.
15. Bicycle Federation of America, 1989. Pro Bike 88: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Bicycle Programs and Promotions, Tucson, Arizona, Oct.8-12, 1988. Washington, D.C., Bicycle Federation of America, Inc. 274 pp.
16. Bicycle Federation of America, 1991. Pro Bike 90: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Bicycle Programs and Promotions, Arlington, VA and Washington, DC, Sept., 1990. Washington, DC, Bicycle Federation of America, Inc. 194 pp.
17. Bishop, D., 1989. Design standards: What we have and what we need. In: Bicycle Federation of America. Pro Bike 88: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Bicycle Programs and Promotions, Tucson, Arizona, Oct.8-12, 1988. Washington, D.C., Bicycle Federation of America, Inc. Pp.163-166.
18. Bjorkman, A.W., 1996. Off-Road Bicycle and Hiking Trail User Interactions: A report to the Wisconsin Natural Resources Bureau of Research. Eagle, Wisconsin
19. Black, C., 1989. Low cost improvements for bicycle facilities. In: Bicycle Federation of America. Pro Bike 88: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Bicycle Programs and Promotions, Tucson, Arizona, Oct.8-12, 1988. Washington, D.C., Bicycle Federation of America, Inc. Pp.158-162.
20. Blahna, Dale J.; Vilter, James C.; Van Patten, Susan; Von Koch, Russ; Chavez, Deborah J. 1995. Slickrock trail mountainbiker survey. Unpublished draft supplied by author.
21. Bradley, T., 1997. Benefits of Staging a Mountain Bike Race. . Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 18-21.
22. British Columbia Ministry of Transportation & Highways, 1992. Interim Cycling Policy: British Columbia interim cycling policy. Victoria, British Columbia.
23. Brown, K. 1988. Wheels of fortune: bicycle marketers shift into high gear to meet demand. Adweek's Marketing Week 29(2):2.
24. Butler, R.W. 1974. How to Control 1000 000 Snowmobilers. Canadian Geographical Journal 88(3): 4-13.
25. Canadian Rails to Greenways Network, 1996. The Canadian Rails & Trails Annotated Bibliography. 51pp.
26. Cessford, G.R. 1995. Off-road Mountain Biking: A profile of riders and their recreation setting and experience preferences. Science & Research Series No.93, Department of Conservation, Wellington.
27. Chavez, D.J., 1994. Making of a regional mountain biking program: A partnership of managers and researchers. In: Fifth International Symposium on Society and Resource Management, Fort Collins, CO, June 7-10, 1994. Book of abstracts. Colorado State University, College of Natural Resources. P.137.
28. Chavez, D.J., 1995. Towards the development of a regional mountain biking program: Understanding the needs of mountain bike riders. In: Managing forests to meet peoples' needs: Proceedings of the 1994 Society of American Foresters/Canadian Institute of Forestry Convention, Anchorage, AK, Sept. 18-22, 1994. Bethesda, MD, SAF. Pp.531-532.
29. Chavez, D.J., 1996. Mountain Biking: Issues and Actions for USDA Forest Service Managers. US Forest Service Research Paper PSW-226-Web, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Berkeley, California.
30. Chavez, D.J., 1997. Mountain Bike Management: Resource Protection and Social Conflicts. Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 36-40.
31. Chavez, D.J., Winter, P.L., and Baas, J.M., 1993. Recreational mountain biking: A management perspective. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration 11(3):29-36. To determine the potential issues associated with mountain bike management, a telephone survey of 40 recreation managers from the U.S. Forest Service and U.S. Bureau of Land Management was conducted.
32. Chavez, Deborah J. 1993. User perceptions about mountain biking in the San Jacinto region: a management and researchpartnership. Unpublished draft supplied by the author.
33. Chilman, K., Foster, D., and Everson, A. Designing Recreation Monitoring Systems: Some Comments on the Participation Observer Design. Canadian Parks Service, National Parks Documentation Centre, 1994.
34. Chilman, K.C., Vogel, J.J., and Conley, J.L., 1991. Turkey Bay Off-Road Vehicle Area at Land Between the Lakes: Monitoring use and impacts since 1973. Southern Illinois University, Department of Forestry; Tennessee Valley Authority; Motorcycle Industry Council. 35 pp. "This report describes how the ORV area and monitoring systems have evolved during 17 years."
35. Colorado Department of Transportation, 1993. Bicycle/pedestrian plan development guidebook for Colorado transportation planning regions. Denver, Colorado Department of Transportation, Bicycle/Pedestrian Program. 24 pp. The first part of this document addresses engineering issues related to providing an adequate bicycling system; the second part covers education and enforcement issues.
36. Colorado Department of Transportation, 1993. Colorado bikeways standards and design guidelines. Draft. Colorado Department of Transportation. 41 pp.
37. Cordell, K.H., Bergstrom J.L., Hartmann L.A. and English O.B.U. 1990. An analysis of the Outdoor Recreation and Wilderness Situation in the United States: 1989-2040. U.S. Department of Agriculture, General Technical Report RM-189.
38. Cycling B.C. `92, Focus on the Future, 1993. Proceedings, Simon Fraser University at Harbour Centre, Vancouver, B.C. Ministry of Transportation and Highways, Victoria, British Columbia.
39. Cycling B.C. `92, Focus on the Future, 1993. Session Paper Outlines, Simon Fraser University at Harbour Centre, Vancouver, B.. Ministry of Transportation and Highways, Victoria, British Columbia.
40. Denver Bicycle Advisory Committee, 1993. 1993 Denver bicycle master plan. Denver, CO, Department of Public Works. 72 pp. + appendix & maps.
41. Department of the Interior, 1978. Planning for Trailbike Recreation: Part II. Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service.
42. Doucette, J.E., Kimball, K.D., 1990. Passive trail management in Northeastern alpine zones: A case study. In: More, T.A. et al., eds. Proceedings of the 1990 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium, Saratoga Springs, NY, Feb.25-28, 1990. U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report NE-145:195-201. "The objective of this study was to quantify the effectiveness of scree walls in protecting and revegetating alpine habitat damaged by hiker trampling in the eastern United States." (P.195)
43. Dziekan, K.J., Reinhardt, R.R., 1995. Lake Champlain Bikeways: Planning and development of bicycling opportunities within the Lake Champlain region. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Outdoor Recreation and Tourism Trends Symposium and
44. Eaddy, D., 1995. Active infrared monitor to estimate trail usage. Rockville, MD, American Pulpwood Association, Technical Release No. 95-R-51. 2 pp. Discusses the use of the TrailMaster 1500.
45. Eisen, V.A., 1993. Building a better bike path. In: Going places: Workshop proceedings from the 4th National Rails-to-Trails Conference, Concord, CA, Sept. 29-Oct. 2, 1993. Washington, DC, Rails-to-Trails Conservancy. Vol. 1, pp.69-73. Discusses bike path design issues with regard to the use of trails as transportation routes.
46. English, J.W., 1986. Liability aspects of bikeway designation: A special report. Washington, D.C., Bicycle Federation of America. 62 pp.
47. Environment Canada - Parks, 1986. Trail and Backcountry Facility Designs. 100pp.
48. Forest Conservation Authority. Ganaraska Forest Study Report. Port Hope, 1985.
49. Forester, J., 1994. Bicycle transportation: A handbook for cycling transportation engineers. 2d ed. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press. 346 pp. Includes information on bikeway engineering and design.
50. Fowler, F.J., 1993. Survey Research Methods: Second Edition, Applied Social Research Methods Series, Volume 1, Sage Publications.
51. Frentz, I.C., Voth, D.E., Anderson, S., Pell, W.F., 1997. A Talk in the Woods: An Impartial Advisory Committee Eases Conflict on the Ouachita. Journal of Forestry, Vol. 95, No. 6.
52. Frost, D. 1995. River Valley Parks & Trail Survey. Unpublished, Edmonton River Valley Parks, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
53. Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority. A Conservation Strategy for the Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority. GRCA, Port Hope, 1992.
54. Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority. Environmental Monitoring Program for Recreational Use of the Ganaraska Forest: Terms of Reference. Adopted by the Ganaraska Region Recreational Users Committee, July 1988.
55. Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority. Ganaraska Forest: Summer Recreation Map. Ministry of Natural Resources.
56. Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority. Ganaraska Forest: Winter Recreation Map. Ministry of Natural Resources.
57. Gendron, J. and McMillan, B. 1995. Community Advisory Panels: A Method to Continually Involve Communities. Equus Consulting Group Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
58. Getchell. D.R., 1995. Modern Water Trails. 1996 North American Water Trails Conference, RR1, Box 3355, Appleton, ME 04862. 75pp
59. Gobster, P.H., 1988. Urban bicycle trails: Use patterns and user preferences. Trends 25(3):21-25. A case study of the North Branch Bicycle Trail in Chicago.
60. Godin, V.B. and Leonard, R.E. 1979. Management Problems in Designated Wilderness Areas. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 34(3): 141-143.
61. Grant, Wm. D. Ganaraska Forest Study: Environmental Capability To Accommodate Outdoor Recreation Activities. Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority, Port Hope, Ontario, 1978.
62. Grant, Wm. D. Ganaraska Forest Study: Outdoor Recreation Management System. Ganaraska Region Conservation Authority, Port Hope, Ontario, 1978.
63. Greene, T.A. and Nichols, T.J., 1995. Managing forests for military training purposes. University of Minnesota, Department of Forest Resources, Staff Paper Series no. 104. 111 pp. Includes a literature review on the effects of traffic on soils and vegetation.
64. Grost, R.T., 1989. Managing the mountain bike. American Forests 95(3/4):50-53,75-77.
65. Haefeli, P., 1994. The Crystal River Valley bicycle trail study. Pitkin County, CO, Pitkin County Open Space and Trails. 60 pp. + 41 pp. appendix. The Crystal River Valley lies in the west central part of Colorado.
66. Haefeli, P., 1994. The Crystal River Valley bicycle trail study. Pitkin County, CO, Pitkin County Open Space and Trails. 60 pp. + 41 pp. appendix. The Crystal River Valley lies in the west central part of Colorado.
67. Hamilton Ross Systematics 1996. Alberta Community Development: 1996 Alberta Recreation Survey. Alberta Community Development, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
68. Harnik, P., 1991. From rails to trails: Converting abandoned rail corridors into bikeways. In: Bicycle Federation of America. Pro Bike 90: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Bicycle Programs and Promotions, Arlington, VA and Washington, DC, Sept., 1990. Washington, DC, Bicycle Federation of America. Pp.96-97.
69. Heaslip and Associates, 1996. Park Operations and Maintenance Manual. 70pp. Alberta Recreation and Parks, 11579 Groat Rd., Edmonton, AB T5M 3K6.
70. Hollenhorst, Steve J.; Schuett, Michael A.; Olson, David. 1993. An examination of the characteristics, preferences, andattitudes of mountain bike users of the National Forests: a preliminary analysis. Unpublished draft supplied by authors.
71. Hollenhorst, Steve J.; Schuett, Michael A.; Olson, David; Chavez, Deborah J.; Mainieri, Tina. 1995. A national study of mountain biking opinion leaders: characteristics, preferences, attitudes and conflicts. Unpublished draft supplied by authors.
72. Hollenhurst, S., Schuett, M. and D. Olson. An Examination of the Characteristics, Preferences, and Attitudes of Mountain Bike Users of the National Forests: A Preliminary Analysis. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Riverside, Ca., 1993.
73. Hutcheson, J., F. Noe, and R. Shaw (eds.) 1992 (I think). Pleasure and Preservation: An Outdoor Recreation Policy Dilemma. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.
74. Hutcheson, J., F. Noe, and R. Shaw (eds.) 1992 (I think). Pleasure and Preservation: An Outdoor Recreation Policy Dilemma. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.
75. Jackson, E.L. 1987. Outdoor recreation, participation and views on resource development and preservation. Leisure Sciences 9(4): 235-250.
76. Jacoby, J., 1990. Mountain bikes: A new dilemma for wildland recreation managers? Western Wildlands 16(1):25-28. Considers several management issues: (1) Should ATBs be allowed free access to backcountry trails, or should they be restricted as motorized vehicles are? (2) How can conflicts between traditional trail users - hikers and equestrians - be resolved? (3) Do ATBs cause environmental damage?
77. Jakus, P., Shaw, W.D., 1997. Congestion at Recreation Areas: Empirical evidence on perception, mitigating behavior and management preferences. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 50, No.4, pp 389-402
78. Jenkins, C. 1987. All Terrain (Mountain) Bicycles in New Zealand. A Discussion Paper. Department of Conservation, New Zealand.
79. Johnson, B.R., 1992. Mitigation of visitor impacts on high montane rare plant habitat: An integrated strategy of design, interpretation and restoration at Craggy Gardens, Blue Ridge Parkway. U.S. National Park Service, Technical Report NPS/SERBLRI/NRTR-93/07. 143 pp. "A visitor use study was conducted to study the relationship between visitor activities and disturbance of rare plant habitat."
80. Jubenville, A. and O'Sullivan, K., 1987. Relationship of vegetation type and slope gradient to trail erosion in interior Alaska. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 42(6):450-452. The White Mountain Summer Trail was used as the study site.
81. Keating, K. Path to Protection: Applying the ABC Resource Inventory Method to Locate a Hiking Trail Route on the Oak Ridges Moraine. M.A. Thesis, Canadian Heritage and Development Studies, Trent University, 1994.
82. Keller, K., 1990. Mountain bikes on public lands: A manager's guide to the state of the practice. Washington, DC, Bicycle Federation of America. 68 pp. Includes information on trail review and design.
83. Keller, K., Robinson, P., and Seher, J., 1991. Mountain bikes: Planning for shared use. In: Bicycle Federation of America. Pro Bike 90: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Bicycle Programs and Promotions, Arlington, VA and Washington, DC, Sept., 1990. Washington, DC, Bicycle Federation of America. Pp.100-102.
84. Knopf, R.C., Driver, B.L. and Bassett, J.D. 1973. Motivations for Fishing. Pp. 28-41 in Hendee, J.C. and Schoenfeld, C. (Eds.), Human Dimensions in Wildlife Programs. Wildlife Management Institute.
85. Knopp, T. and Tyger, J. 1973. A study of conflict in recreational land use: Snowmobiling vs ski-touring. Journal of Leisure Research 11(4): 317-326.
86. Kuss, F.R., Graefe, A.R. and Vaske, J.J. 1990. Visitor Impact Management: Volume One - A Review of Research. National Parks and Conservation Association. Washington DC.
87. Kuss, F.R., Graefe, A.R. and Vaske, J.J. 1990. Visitor Impact Management: Volume Two - A Review of Research. National Parks and Conservation Association. Washington DC.
88. Lanarc Consultants Ltd., 1996. Community Greenways. Co-published by British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands & Forests and Canada Department of Fisheries & Oceans. 72pp.
89. Louisiana Bicycle Advisory Committee, 1990. Report to the 1990 Louisiana Legislature. Louisiana Division of Outdoor Recreation. 13 pp.
90. Lucas, R.C. 1964. Wilderness Perception and Use: The Example of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area. Natural Resources Journal 3(3): 394-411.
91. Lucas, R.C. 1970. User Concepts of Wilderness and their Implications for Resource Management. Pp. 297-303 in Proshansky, H.M., Ittelson, W.H. and Rivlin, L.G. (Eds.), Environmental Psychology. Holf Rhinehart and Winston, New York.
92. Lucas, R.C. 1980. Use Patterns and Visitor Characteristics, Attitudes and Preferences in Nine Wilderness and Other Roadless Areas. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research Paper INT-253. Intermountain Research Station.
93. Lucas, R.C. 1985. The Management of Recreational Visitors in Wilderness Areas in the United States. Pp. 122-136 in Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C. (Eds.), The Ecological Impacts of Outdoor Recreation on Mountain Areas in Europe and North America. Recreation Ecology Research Group Report No.9.
94. Lucas, R.C. 1985. The Management of Recreational Visitors in Wilderness Areas in the United States. Pp. 122-136 in Bayfield, N.G. and Barrow, G.C. (Eds.), The Ecological Impacts of Outdoor Recreation on Mountain Areas in Europe and North America. Recreation Ecology Research Group Report No.9.
95. Magill, A. and Twiss, R.H., 1965. A Guide for Recording Esthetic and Biologic Changes with Photographs. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, California.
96. Magill, Arthur W. 1993. Mountain bicyclists activities in the urban/wildland interface. Unpublished draft supplied by author.
97. Manning, R.E. 1985. Crowding Norms in Backcountry Settings: A Review and Synthesis. Journal of Leisure Research 17(2): 75-89.
98. Manning, R.E. 1986. Studies in Outdoor Recreation - A Review and Synthesis of the Social Science Literature in Outdoor Recreation. Oregon State University Press 1986.
99. Marion, J.L., 1988. The design and development of a comprehensive trail survey. In: Gaby, E.D., ed. National Trails Symposium, 9th, Unicoi State Park, Georgia, Sept. 11-14, 1988. Proceedings. U.S. Forest Service; Tennessee Valley Authority; National Park Service. pp.55-59. This paper describes steps designed to guide managers in developing a trail survey for collecting information such as location, condition, maintenance needs, and interpretive features of trails.
100. Marion, J.L., 1988. The design and development of a comprehensive trail survey. In: Gaby, E.D., ed. National Trails Symposium, 9th, Unicoi State Park, Georgia, Sept. 11-14, 1988. Proceedings. U.S. Forest Service; Tennessee Valley Authority; National Park Service. pp.55-59. This paper describes steps designed to guide managers in developing a trail survey for collecting information such as location, condition, maintenance needs, and interpretive features of trails.
101. Marshall, MacKlin, Monaghan Ltd., 1995. Overview Study: Impact of Mountain Bicycle Activity in Metro Parks (Toronto, Ontario). R.D. Kivi, Sr. Project Manager, Transportation Engineering.
102. Martial Arts, Confucius, and Managing Mountain Bikes: The Role of Etiquette in Conflict Management. Trends, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 41-44.
103. McCool, S., Watson, A. (eds.), 1995. Linking Tourism, the Environment, and Sustainability. Intermountain Research Station, Minneapolis.
104. McCool, S., Watson, A. (eds.), 1995. Linking Tourism, the Environment, and Sustainability. Intermountain Research Station, Minneapolis.
105. McCoy, M. and Stoner, M.A., 1992. Mountain bike trails: Techniques for design, construction and maintenance. Missoula, MT, Bikecentennial. 19 pp. This guide is intended to assist managers in their efforts to design, adapt, and maintain trails for mountain bike use. The publication is a result of a partnership between Bikecentennial and the U.S. Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center.
106. McCoy, Michael; Stoner, MaryAlice. 1991. Mountain bike trails: techniques for design, construction and maintenance.Missoula, MT: Bikecentennial; 20 p.
107. Menkhaus, S. and Lober, D. J., 1996. International Ecotourism and the Valuation of Tropical Rainforests in Costa Rica. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 47, No. 4.
108. Menkhaus, S. and Lober, D. J., 1996. International Ecotourism and the Valuation of Tropical Rainforests in Costa Rica. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 47, No. 4.
109. Metropolitan Assoc. of Urban Designers and Environ. Planners, 1974. Proceedings of the Seminar on Bicycle/Pedestrian Planning and Design, Walt Disney World, FL, Dec. 12-14, 1974. New York, American Society of Civil Engineers. 700 pp.
110. Minnesota Dept. of Transportation, 1983. Bikeway design manual. Minnesota Dept. of Transportation. 45 pp.
111. Moritz, W.E., 1995. Bicycle facilities and use. Final report. Washington State Department of Transportation. WA-RD 370.1 36 pp. + appendix. This report describes the results of a project designed to identify bicycle facility improvements that would encourage more people to use a bicycle for commuting and other utilitarian purposes.
112. National Capital Commision, 1986. Recreational Pathways. 99pp. Ottawa, Ontario.
113. National Park Service, 1986. Bikeway needs study, North Beach Developed Area, Assateague Island National Seashore, Maryland. Revised, Nov., 1986. U.S. National Park Service. 23 pp.
114. National Park Service, 1987. Parkwide bicycle trail study/traffic safety study/environmental assessment, Cape Cod National Seashore, Massachusetts. Draft study. U.S. National Park Service. 112 pp.
115. National Park Service, 1988. Bicycle trail plan, Cape Cod National Seashore, Massachusetts. U.S. National Park Service. 35 pp.
116. National Park Service, 1989. Bicycle trail system study. Phase 1: Corridor study alternatives and environmental assessment; Everglades National Park, Florida. U.S. National Park Service, 42 pp.
117. National Recreation Resources Planning Conference, St. Paul, MN, May 14-17, 1995. Univ. of Minn., Minn. Ext. Serv., Tourism Center. p.558-560. The mission of Lake Champlain Bikeways is to promote bicycling throughout the Lake Champlain regions of New York, Vermont, and Quebec.
118. Nevada Legislative Commission, 1990. Study of bicycle safety and bicycle trails in Nevada. Legislative Commission of the Legislative Counsel Bureau, State of Nevada, Bulletin no. 91-2. 132 pp. One of the purposes of the study was to evaluate the "desirabilty and estimated cost of establishing a statewide master plan of bicycle trails." (p.v) Appendices include excerpts from the State of Oregon Bicycle Master Plan, and from the Arizona Bicycle Facilities Planning and Design Guidelines.
119. Noakes, D., 1996. A Community Workbook on multiple Use Trail Safety. Meewasin Valley Authority, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
120. Noe, F.P., Hull, R.B. and Wellman, J.D. 1983. Normative Response and Norm Activation Among ORU users within a Seashore Environment. Leisure Sciences 5(2): 127-142.
121. Oak Ridges Moraine Technical Working Committee, 1994. The Oak Ridges Moraine Area Strategy for the Greater Toronto Area: An Ecological Approach to the Protection and Management of the Oak Ridges Moraine. Queen's Printer for Ontario.
122. Oregon Bicycle Advisory Committee, 1992. Oregon bicycle plan adopted by the Oregon Transportation Commission, April 23, 1992. Salem, Oregon Department of Transportation, Technical Services Branch. 89 pp.
123. Oregon Dept. of Transportation, 1988. State of Oregon bicycle master plan. Salem, Oregon Dept. of Transportation, Highway Division. 71 pp.
124. Oregon Highway Division, 1984. State of Oregon bicycle master plan. Oregon Dept. of Transportation, Highway Division. 71 pp. + map.
125. Paquet, M.M., editor, 1990. Mountain Biking Symposium proceedings. Vancouver, BC, Outdoor Recreation Council of British Columbia. 88 pp. Proceedings of a "forum to explore ways of accomodating mountain biking in British Columbia while addressing the concerns of other trail users and land managers." Includes panel discussions on recreationists' and land managers' perspectives on mountain biking.
126. Parker, T.S., 1994. Trails Design and Management Handbook, prepared for Open Space and Trails Program, Pitkin county, Colorado. 207pp.
127. Parker, T.S., 1994. Trails Design and Management Handbook, prepared for Open Space and Trails Program, Pitkin county, Colorado. 207pp.
128. Parks Canada, 1993. Park Facility Standards.
129. Parks Canada, 1997. Environmental Screening Report: Opening of Ross Lake Trail to Mountain Bike Use. Lake Louise, Banff National Park, Alberta.
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134. Pedersen, H., 1992. Simpsons Gap National Park bicycle path: Planning and construction. Australian Parks and Recreation 28(4):30-34. Discusses the construction of a bicycle path in the Northern Territory of Australia.
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Unpublished reports:
Dale Blahna, PhD, is an assistant professor at Utah State University, Department of Forest Resources, Logan, UT 84322-5215.
Steven Hollenhorst, PhD, is an assistant professor at West Virginia University, Division of Forestry, Morgantown, WV 26506-6125.
Andy Kulla is a recreation specialist on the Lolo National Forest, Building 24, Fort Missoula, Missoula, MT 59801.
David Olson is a research technician at West Virginia University, Division of Forestry, Morgantown, WV 26506-6125.
Michael Schuett, PhD, is an assistant professor at Southwest Texas State University, Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, San Marcos, TX 78666-4616.
James Tilmant is with the National Park Service at Glacier National Park, P.O. Box 128, West Glacier, MT 59936.
Don Weir is a private consultant specializing in groundwater, environmental
and engineering geology,
#303, 9920-90 Ave, Edmonton, Alberta, T6E 2T3.
